Gender Disparities in TVET Access and Outcomes: A Mixed-Methods Study from Peshawar Division, Pakistan

DOI:https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22135820

الملخص

This article using a convergent mixed method study of 260 TVET graduates, 14 principals, 24 teachers and 12 employers in Peshawar Division, Pakistan, looks at the gender disparities in access and achievement of TVET in this region. The study shows that there is a long-standing gender disparity in TVET participation, as only 39.2% of the graduates were women, although about half of them were. The gap between boys and girls is wider in Khyber and Mohmand districts especially at the borders, in few programmes the enrolment of girls is less than 25%. In the study, it is established that women graduate students have compounded problems namely transportation problems, safety, family permission, and limited female-only training facilities. Gender differences in the employment outcomes also reveal that the female graduates have higher rates of unemployment (36.5%) than male graduates (30.4%) and lower scores on income improvement (M=3.12 for females and M=3.48 for males). From the focus group discussion and semi-structured interviews, the following findings are identified, and they explain how gender affects TVET experiences, namely: cultural norms that restrict women's mobility, the lack of female teachers in technical TVET courses, and employer discrimination on women graduates. The study uses the Human Capital Theory framework to make the argument that gender barriers lower the returns on human capital investment for women, and therefore contribute to cycles of economic marginalisation. The results are important for SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and call for targeted interventions to increase access and outcomes for gender equity in TVET. The article suggests four policy recommendations which are interlinked: transport allowance for female students, training batches in conservative districts for female students only, gender mainstreaming in TVET curricula, and the engagement of employers to overcome discrimination in the workplace. These recommendations provide a way to promote gender parity in TVET and support women's economic empowerment in Pakistan.